1. Agronomy Department, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan; naseem67@gmail.com
2. PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan; aesha_badar@gmail.com
3. Associate Professor; Agronomy Department, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan; nazirsalman@uaar.edu.pk

*             Correspondence: naseem67@gmail.com

Keywords: natural world, ecology, pesticides, agricultural sector

1. INTRODUCTION

The class of materials referred to as pesticides includes materials that are applied as nematicides, rodenticides, herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides [1]. Pesticides are widely acknowledged to be crucial to agricultural development due to their ability to lower agricultural product losses and raise the quantity and quality of food produced at a reasonable cost [2-4]. During World War II, the development of pesticides increased due to the pressing need to improve food supply and combat insect-borne diseases (1939–1945). Additionally, a significant boost in food production was made possible starting in the 1940s by the increased use of synthetic crop protection agents [1]. In addition, the output of pesticides rose at a pace of over 11% year globally, rising from 0.2 million tons in the 1950s to over 5 million tons by 2000 [5]. Only 1% of all pesticides are used successfully to control insect pests on target plants, despite the fact that three billion kg of pesticides are used annually worldwide [6]. The significant quantities of residual pesticides seep into or come into contact with non-target plants and environmental media. Consequently, environmental pollution and adverse health effects have been produced by pesticide contamination [1, 7]. First, this literature review offers fundamental scientific data regarding the history of pesticide use, the various types of pesticides currently in use, the course of agricultural development, and the function of pesticides in agriculture. Next, specific attention is paid to how pesticides behave in the ecosystem, how pesticide use is impacted by climate change, and how pesticide use negatively impacts the environment. Ultimately, this research offers a fresh approach to pesticide management and application.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Many regions of the world have a lengthy history of agricultural growth. Around 10,000 years ago, agriculture was first practiced in the Fertile Crescent region of Mesopotamia, which roughly corresponds to the majority of modern-day Iraq, Turkey, Syria, and Jordan [8]. These people used techniques like forest gardening and fire-stick farming to gather edible seeds. Large amounts of wheat, barley, peas, lentils, chickpeas, bitter vetch, and flax were cultivated as the population grew more settled and lived on farms [9]. Around 7500 years ago, sorghum and rice were cultivated in the Sahel region of Africa [10]. Furthermore, according to Davies (1968), several native crops were independently domesticated approximately 7500 years ago in Ethiopia, New Guinea, and West Africa. China domesticated millet and rice [11]. America is credited with independently domesticating sunflowers, corn, squash, and potatoes [12]. Pests, weeds, and diseases are common problems for farmed crops, which can significantly reduce crop productivity. In the absence of pesticides, fruit, vegetable, and cereal losses resulting from pests and illnesses might reach 78%, 54%, and 32%, correspondingly [13]. Thus, it is imperative that researchers and the general public find solutions to the issues brought on by illnesses and pests. Three eras can be distinguished in the history of pesticide use. Initially, before the 1870s, pests were managed with a variety of natural substances. The Sumerians are credited with using pesticides for the first time approximately 4500 years ago [8]. Sulfur compounds were utilized to manage mites and insects. The Chinese utilized mercury and compounds containing arsenic to suppress body lice about 3200 years ago. Since there was no chemical industry, every product used came straight from easily accessible sources of plant, animal, or mineral resources. For instance, “smoking” was frequently used to apply volatile compounds. Basically, the idea was to burn everything that could be burned, such straw, chaff, hedge clippings, crabs, fish, excrement, or other animal products, in order to disperse smoke—preferably anything stinky—throughout the orchard, crop, or vineyard [8]. Most people believed that this kind of smoke would get rid of mildew or blight. Insects were also repelled by smoke. Hand weeding was the primary method used by people to control weeds, while other chemical approaches were also mentioned [14]. Since more than 2000 years ago, pyrethrum—also known as “pyrethrum daisies”—has been utilized as an insecticide. It is derived from the dried flowers of the chrysanthemum Cineraria folium. The second period saw the introduction of inorganic manufactured materials by humans, spanning from 1870 to 1945. Sweden employed sulfur and copper compounds at the close of the 1800s to prevent fungus from attacking potatoes and fruit [15]. Since then, a variety of inorganic chemicals have been utilized as pesticides, such as the Bordeaux mixture, which is based on copper sulfate and lime arsenic, and is still being used to prevent a number of fungal illnesses [1]. Following 1945 [8], the third stage began with the use of synthetic pesticides after the effects of 2,4-D, β-Hexachlorocyclohexane (BHC), aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, parathion, and captan were discovered [16]. Numerous of these products have high application rates, poor selectivity, and significant toxicity as drawbacks. For instance, DDT was used extensively around the world due of its low toxicity to mammals and ability to lower the prevalence of diseases carried by insects, including typhus, yellow fever, and malaria [17, 18]. The detrimental effects of pesticides on the environment and human health were highlighted in the book “Silent Spring.” Both the general audience and academics paid close attention to the book [1]. Due to its detrimental effects on unintended plants and animals, as well as issues with its remarkable capacity to accumulate in tissues and linger, resulting in long-term harm, DDT was outlawed in the United States in 1972 [19]. Triazolopyrimidine, triketone and isoxazole herbicides, strobilurin and azolone fungicides, chloronicotinyl, spinosyn, fiprole diacylhydrazine, and organophosphate insecticides are just a few of the new chemical families that were brought to the market between the 1970s and 1990s [1,18]. The majority of these new chemicals are used in grams rather than kilograms per hectare. In contemporary agriculture, researchers are working to create genetically modified crops that can generate their own pesticides or show resistance to pests or broad-spectrum herbicides. This novel approach to pest control may lessen the usage of chemicals and their harmful effects on the environment [1]. Various classification concepts, including chemical classes, functional groups, modes of action, and toxicity, are used to categorize pesticides [20]. First, different pests are the targets of different pesticides, such as herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides, and fungicides. Fungicides, for instance, are used to destroy fungi, insecticides, insects, and weeds, respectively [21, 22]. Pesticides are categorized into two groups based on their chemical composition: organic and inorganic. Copper sulfate, ferrous sulfate, copper, sulfur, and lime are examples of inorganic insecticides. Organic insecticides have more complex component lists [23, 24].  Several pesticide varieties have produced enormous primary benefits in a variety of fields, such as agriculture and public health [25]. In terms of public health, pesticides are regularly employed to eradicate pests from homes, workplaces, shopping centers, and streets, such as rats, mice, ticks, and mosquitoes. Consequently, the enormous burden of diseases brought on by these vectors has either completely disappeared or been significantly reduced [21, 23, 26]. When it comes to controlling insects that might transmit dangerous diseases like malaria, which is thought to cause 5000 deaths worldwide every day, insecticides are frequently the most feasible solution [17]. Furthermore, pesticides are essential to the development of agriculture. Farmers have employed pesticides to control insects and weeds in agricultural operations, and reports of significantly higher agricultural production have been linked to the use of pesticides [1,27]. Since the turn of the 20th century, agricultural yield has significantly increased in response to population growth. A century later, the world population grew from 1.5 billion in 1900 to around 6.1 billion in 2000, which is three times faster than it has ever been in human history. The population of the world has grown by one billion since 2003, and at the present rate of growth, it is expected to reach 9.4–10 billion by 2050 [5]. Without a corresponding rise in food production, the global population growth of the 20th century would not have been conceivable. Pesticides have been an essential component of the process by lowering harvest losses brought on by weeds, illnesses, and insect pests, even while advances in food yield have been attributed to a number of causes, including the use of chemicals, improved plant varieties, and machinery [25]. Approximately one-third of agricultural goods are made with the use of pesticides. Fruit production would decline by 78%, vegetable production would decline by 54%, and cereal production would decline by 32% in the absence of pesticides [27]. Consequently, pesticides are essential to the global decrease in disease and enhancement of crop production. As a result, individuals have significantly lessened hunger and improved access to a plentiful quantity of nutritious food. Another benefit of using pesticides is a secondary one that is less obvious and immediate but has longer-term effects. These include increased income for farms and agribusinesses, improved nutrition and health, food safety, improved quality of life, a greater variety of viable crops, longer life expectancies, lower veterinary and medical expenses, a healthier population, stress, maintenance costs, soil erosion and moisture loss, greenhouse gas emissions, the spread of diseases internationally, global warming, increased export revenues, workforce productivity, biodiversity, and cropping because of agronomic consultation [28]. Reducing pasture pests will increase animal output significantly. For instance, controlling red-legged earth mites in clover may require spraying insecticides at a cost of USD 10/ha; nevertheless, sheep farmers in Australia can enhance the value of their wool yield by USD 50/ha [29]. Another illustration is how applying the right pesticides to boost agricultural productivity may greatly raise the income of farming families [30]. The importance of economical, safe, and nutrient-dense food as a health promoter extends life expectancy [28]. Pesticides have the potential to leak into the environment when they are sprayed on target plants or disposed of. Pesticides may go through processes including degradation and transfer (or mobility) when they get into the environment [31–33]. New compounds are created as pesticides degrade in the environment [34]. Adsorption, leaching, volatilization, spray drift, and runoff are some of the transfer processes that cause pesticides to move from the target site to other environmental media or non-target plants [35]. The many chemical kinds point to the variations in how they behave in the environment. Organochlorine chemicals, like DDT, for instance, exhibit minimal acute toxicity but a notable capacity to accumulate in tissues and continue to cause harm over an extended period of time. Although their sale is prohibited in the majority of countries, their nature means that their remnants linger in the environment for a very long time. Organophosphate insecticides have a significant acute toxicity in mammals despite having a low persistence [23–36]. Pesticides are broken down by light, chemical processes, or bacteria once they are administered to the target organism [37]. Degradation times for pesticides can range from hours to days or even years [39], depending on the surrounding environment and the chemical properties of the pesticide [38]. Different metabolites are produced by pesticide breakdown mechanisms, which also regulate the pesticide’s persistence in soils [40]. Additionally, it offers the idea of a pesticide’s half-life in the environment [34]. For instance, compared to its parent chlorpyrifos, the primary metabolite 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) of chlorpyrifos is significantly more mobile and hazardous [41]. In many places, it has been common to find chlorpyrifos and the byproducts of its breakdown in soils, sediments, and groundwater. These substances are thought to be endocrine disruptors, which could be harmful to people’s health [42]. Pesticide degradation comes in three flavors [43, 44]. The breakdown of insecticides by bacteria and fungi is known as microbial degradation [45]. For instance, in natural settings, the primary mechanism for niclosamide breakdown is biodegradation since naturally occurring Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are highly capable of breaking down niclosamide [43]. Pesticide microbial breakdown is influenced by a number of factors, including as temperature, oxygen, moisture content, pH, and soil porosity [31, 42, 44, 46]. For instance, the pH of the soil mostly affects the enantioselective degradation of benalaxyl, with a higher pH causing a stronger degradation [47]. Chemical processes in the soil have the ability to break down pesticides. Chemical deterioration is the term for this process [48]. Furthermore, because UV radiation is a chemical reaction that is always in motion, it has a significant impact on the deterioration of molecules on soil surfaces [49]. Temperature, pH, moisture content, and insecticide binding to the soil all affect the kind and pace of chemical breakdown [31]. The breakdown of pesticides caused by sunshine is known as photo-degradation [50]. To some extent, all insecticides can degrade through photosynthesis; the pace at which this happens varies depending on the insecticide’s characteristics, the duration of exposure, and the intensity of the light [31]. For instance, when exposed to light, niclosamide may hydrolyze to produce 2-chloro-4-nitroaniline and 5-chlorosalicylic acid [43]. The properties of soil are directly altered by climate change, which also affects how pesticides are applied [44]. A higher average temperature decreases the amount of organic matter in the soil and increases the risk of soil erosion due to faster rates of water and inorganic chemical transport [45]. Furthermore, when temperatures rise, soil’s ability to store and cycle carbon is affected [46], and soil fracture frequency and size are likely to rise [38]. According to Bloomfield et al. (2006), crack formation will also cause a more rapid and direct movement of water and solutes from the soil surface to a depth or straight to field drains, which may lead to pesticide losses in target areas and surface and ground water pollution. In addition to having a direct effect on pesticide application, the effects of climate change on soil conditions also have an indirect effect on pesticide use by first affecting the growth and distribution of weeds, diseases, and insect pests in crops. Plant growth, survival, and reproduction are influenced by climate variables, which also restrict the plants’ geographic distribution, agricultural yield, and interactions with other species. Generally speaking, the effects of climate factors on soil, nutrient dynamics, and pest species have an indirect influence on food crops, whereas variations in temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide have a direct impact [47]. The crops planted in the various cultivation zones will undergo both positive and negative changes as a result of variations in mean and severe temperatures as well as rainfall patterns. This will lead to adjustments in the kind and quantity of pesticides applied [48–50]. In particular, crop performance and yields may be adversely affected by weather variations, such as irregular or low rainfall that is poorly distributed [51]. According to Abass et al. (2014) [52], sowing seeds close to the start of rainfall does not always result in strong yields, which may lead to a shift in the application of pesticides in cases when rainfall may not be sufficient to support crop growth. Drought circumstances can also result in a reduction in the growth and unique qualities of crops. Abass et al. (2014), for instance, highlight how drought circumstances reduce the growth and stimulating qualities of tea harvests. They added that tea production areas face increasingly extreme weather conditions that predict long-term and more frequent droughts, as well as increased heavy precipitation events, if changes in tea functional quality brought about by poor water availability and herbivore pressures are indicative of broader climate change. Pesticide application will be impacted by this. Regarding increasing temperatures, Ahmad et al. (2016) [53] note that one of the main obstacles to the production of sorghum is the high temperatures in Pakistan from May to July. Positively, increased temperatures, precipitation, and carbon dioxide levels during growing seasons all contribute to higher crop yields [54]. For instance, higher carbon dioxide generally leads to higher rice yields. Moreover, in regions with ideal summer rainfall and temperatures, dry-land green mealies can be produced in the winter [55]. The complex ecological dynamics of more than two creatures lead to crop damage caused by insects, pests, weeds, and diseases, which is extremely challenging to assess and predict [56]. Phenology and regional distribution may shift in a variety of ecosystems due to climate change. Climate change has an impact on the distribution and traits of pests, hosts, and biocontrol agents that are related to crop productivity. The primary factors influencing pest insects, weeds, and diseases include rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and elevated carbon dioxide levels as a result of climate change [57–59]. In reference to carbon dioxide, due to modifications in plant nutrition and defense mechanisms, increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations may modify the vulnerability of many plants to herbivore insects. In addition, variations in CO2 would affect the distribution of pests, the amount of nitrogen in the soil, and the density of the population. Variations in precipitation will impact insect infestations as well. In wetter climates, there are most likely more severe bug infestations. Insect regional distributions are also influenced by weather [60]. Crop disease distribution and type are determined by climate conditions. The primary climatic elements influencing crop diseases are temperature, humidity, precipitation, radiation, and dew [92,94]. Climate conditions have a direct impact on crop diseases by altering the biological circumstances of plant hosts, pathogens, and vectors. They also have a direct impact on disease severity and plant losses [61]. Climate factors, such as increased temperatures, higher concentrations of water vapor, and more frequent and heavy rainfall, will create an environment that is conducive to the emergence of infectious diseases, spore germination, and the activity, dissemination, and reproduction of zoospores [65–67]. Furthermore, more rainfall in the winter could exacerbate illness. Furthermore, changes in temperature and humidity will affect the growth, survival, and spread of fungi. Thus, the severity of disease and the frequency of fungus are impacted by climate change [68]. Climate change affects the growth of both crops and weeds. Weeds are likely to evolve very rapidly in increasing levels of temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide, often resulting in a greater use of pesticides [69]. Rising carbon dioxide levels most likely encourage the expansion and development of several weeds, leading to the invasiveness of some of them. According to Ziska et al. (2011) [70], rising carbon dioxide levels most likely cause weed plants to grow larger and taller, which in turn increases the wind dispersal of weed seeds. Farmers may utilize more or different herbicides as a result of this. Both the growth of weeds and the effectiveness of weedicides are impacted by rising carbon dioxide levels. Increases in carbon dioxide also encourage morphological and morpho-physiological changes in weeds, which affects how well herbicides are absorbed and translocated. Furthermore, perennial weeds may become much more harmful if enhanced photosynthesis in response to increasing CO2 stimulates vegetative growth. Moreover, carbon dioxide increases root biomass, which likely makes controlling perennial weeds more difficult in environments with elevated carbon dioxide levels. Herbicide foliar uptake is inhibited in C3 weeds due to an increase in leaf thickness and a decrease in stomata number and conductivity with rising carbon dioxide levels [71]. One of the key factors controlling the geographic ranges of weed species is thought to be temperature [72]. Raising temperatures may alter the competitive and reproductive behaviors of weeds. For instance, Datura stramonium L. requires high temperatures for its profuse development, and it is likely to grow more competitive as temperatures rise. Winter annual weeds thrive in milder, wetter winters, while summer annuals, which are thermophiles, most likely grow larger in warmer summers with longer growing seasons. Raising temperatures has a significant impact on the biomass that annual grass species accumulate throughout the reproductive stage. In addition to directly affecting weed development, higher temperatures also have an impact on pesticide uptake, translocation, and persistence in weeds, all of which contribute to weed growth. In order to control weeds, farmers can be persuaded to adopt stronger herbicides. Drought and rainfall patterns can have an impact on weed development and how it interacts with crops. Increased periods of extreme dryness and a shift in the pattern of rainfall brought on by climate change are likely to alter the distribution of weeds and their effects on agricultural productivity. Furthermore, the responses of various weeds to climate change vary. For example, Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Hochst.) Benth is better suited for situations with plentiful water, but C4 and parasitic weeds like Striga hermonthica may do better during extended droughts [142]. Furthermore, there is a negative correlation between the frequency and severity of rainfall and pesticide uptake, retention, and environmental behavior. Droughts also cause an increase in leaf pubescence and cuticle thickness, which decreases the amount of herbicide that reaches the leaves. Droughts that occur more frequently also cause herbicide volatilization, and abnormally high rainfall amounts may encourage the use of herbicides on soil and contaminate groundwater. Increases in precipitation may therefore encourage the growth of weeds [72]. The primary activities of pesticides in the environment are transformation, degradation, and mobility [73]. The primary cause of atmospheric pesticide pollution is volatilization. Rapid volatilization is caused by rising temperatures, increased soil moisture, and direct sunshine exposure. For instance, because of their heavy usage and the relatively high temperatures in the Bo-Hai Sea environment throughout the spring and summer, the concentration levels of currently used pesticides were greater between May and August [1]. Another illustration is the fact that in Hangzhou, China’s Yangtze River Delta, the concentration of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in the air is higher in the summer than it is in the winter [74]. After rainfall, there occurs a quick volatilization with humid soil, similar to temperature. There are two primary ways that pesticides can contaminate water: runoff and drift. The primary elements that significantly influence the runoff rate are the parcel’s slope, soil type, texture, and structure in addition to crop development, row directionality, and meteorological conditions [74]. Precipitation volumes of variable duration, rainfall seasonality, intensity, and timing in relation to pesticide application were enhanced by interactions between climate and soil–pesticide combinations, which in turn affected the transfer of pesticides to a depth through leaching and to surface water via drainage. Temperature is the primary source of leaching because it has an impact on the geochemistry and mineralogy of soil. Research generally shows a negative link with leaching, which is frequently brought about by desorption. In addition to having a seasonal effect on pesticide transport in leaching, temperature also lessens the impact of winter precipitation [75]. The residues of spring or autumn applications that are better maintained and less decomposed are generally strongly influenced by such winter rain. It is known that because of faster microbiological and chemical reaction rates, global warming speeds up the breakdown of chemical components and may lower environmental pesticide concentrations. Furthermore, higher precipitation levels and soil moisture content promote pesticide breakdown and, in turn, persistence [36]. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that increased relative humidity accelerates the environmental pesticide degradation process, despite the fact that this is the more challenging initial degradation in this instance [75]. The primary drivers of the rising usage of pesticides are population growth and climate change [61–63], with projections for increased worldwide pesticide production in the future. Pesticide use is on the rise, and while it can help produce more inexpensive, high-quality food and increase crop yields, there are a number of drawbacks for both the environment and public health. Because of the chemicals in pesticides, which are used to kill pests and control weeds, pesticides can also be toxic to other organisms, such as fish, birds, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, as well as to various environmental media, such as soil, water, and crops. These chemical residues affect human health by contaminating food and the environment. Additionally, pesticide contamination spreads apart from the intended plant targets, causing pollution in the surrounding area. Pesticides can travel by the air, wind, water, land, runoff, leaching, and contact with people, animals, and plants [74]. Groundwater and surface water have been shown to contain a wide variety of compounds, some of which are pesticides [31, 72]. In order to control aquatic weeds and aquatic insects, pesticides are commonly applied directly into surface and groundwater. Other methods of pesticide entry include percolation and runoff from agricultural production fields, drift from agro-allied industrial wastewater, discharge from wastewater from clean-up equipment used for pesticide formulation and application, atmospheric deposition, and air/water exchange [72–73]. When pesticides seep from treated fields, mixing and washing sites, or waste disposal places, groundwater becomes contaminated [74]. Since surface water systems are tiny captive sinks of the waste products of human activity, they are particularly susceptible to the buildup of pesticides and other chemicals [72]. These systems include rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs, and estuaries. The hydrologic cycle connects surface water systems to atmospheric water and groundwater. Moreover, seepage of the soil allows pesticides in surface water to reach groundwater. Additionally, evaporation and transpiration allow them to enter the atmosphere [75]. Surface waters can also be replenished by groundwater and atmospheric water. One of the characteristics of soil is its ability to filter, break down, and detoxify pesticides. Pesticide breakdown generates residues that damage the environment by transforming and surviving for years not just in terrestrial but also in aquatic environments. In fact, pesticide contamination of soil and sediment has been a major issue in terrestrial areas, having a negative influence on food quality and agricultural sustainability. Furthermore, soil is the primary reservoir of environmental pesticides in terrestrial areas, contributing significantly to the global distribution and fate of contamination due to its large retention capacity of pesticides in their structures through adsorption, but also re-emitting old organic pollutants into the atmosphere, groundwater, and living organisms as a secondary source [67]. The characteristics of pesticides, such as water solubility, soil sorption constant (Koc), octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow), and half-life in soil (DT50), are closely correlated with the persistence of pesticide residues in the soil [75]. Strong soil binding of pesticides results in high Kow values and high Koc values, both of which lead to strong sorption to the soil’s organic matter. Therefore, it would be assumed that pesticides labeled as hydrophobic, persistent, or bio-accumulable would build up and remain in soils. The interactions between the soil matrixes, such as the organic matter content, pH, temperature, humidity, types of microorganisms, irrigation modes, and grass hedges, influence the transformation behavior of pesticides in the soil [36,68]. When pesticides are sprayed on target plants, non-target creatures suffer, in contrast to the intended insect pests [74]. This includes harm to bees, honeybees, aquatic environments, wildlife, birds, beneficial insects, and the natural enemies of pest insects. The effects of pesticides on non-target organisms are twofold: first, they damage non-target organisms by direct contact, and second, pesticide residues may have adverse effects on non-target organisms in the future [75].

3. CONCLUSION

There is a long history of agricultural development in various parts of the world. There are three distinct eras in the history of pesticide use in agricultural growth. Various classification terms, including chemical classes, functional groups, modes of action, and toxicity, are used to categorize pesticides. Pesticide use has produced enormous benefits for a variety of fields, including agriculture and public health. In terms of public health, pesticides are regularly employed to eradicate pests from homes, workplaces, shopping centers, and streets, such as rats, mice, ticks, and mosquitoes. Consequently, the enormous burden of diseases brought on by these vectors has either completely disappeared or been significantly reduced. Farmers have employed pesticides to manage weeds and insects in agricultural operations, and there have been reports of notable gains in agricultural output as a result of pesticide use. Pesticide behavior in the environment, such as transfer and degradation, should be taken into account when using pesticides to target plants. Pollution of the environment, including soil, water, and air pollution as well as food contamination, is caused by improper pesticide use, management, and behavior. The occurrence of insect pests, weeds, and diseases linked to pesticide application are among the environmental and socioeconomic elements influenced by climate change factors. These factors also have an impact on the behavior of pesticides in the environment. (1) Climate change affects soil properties such as soil organic matter, soil’s ability to store and cycle carbon, and the size and frequency of cracks in soils, which affects how pesticides are applied. Crop productivity is impacted by climate change, which also changes the geographic distribution of crops and increases temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide levels. Thus, the amount and type of pesticides may increase as a result of climate change. (3) Crop growth, climatic factors, insect pest migration and dispersion, pest abundance variations, pest outbreak frequency and vector dispersal, weed evolution, and disease stimulation are all impacted by climate change. This leads to a greater range of pesticides being used more frequently. (4) The behavior of pesticides in terms of volatilization, runoff, leaching, and pesticide degradation—which includes photolysis as well as chemical and microbiological breakdown—is also accelerated by climate change. Consequently, the increased usage of pesticides and insecticides as a result of climate change raises exposure to and dangers to human health from pesticide pollution. Controlling pesticide contamination and its detrimental effects on the environment and other non-target creatures is therefore essential. To further our understanding of pesticide usage and management in the future, further research on occupational and environmental exposures, as well as the health risks associated with pesticide use, should be conducted. In order to provide scientific training for pesticide application, prevent negative health effects from pesticide usage, and promote safety for applicators and communities in support of sustainable development, it is also imperative to communicate the scientific results of exposure and occupational and environmental health risk assessments. To reduce the amount of pesticide contamination, biopesticides should be developed in addition to chemical pesticides.

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