1. Institute of Crisis Management Studies, Tribhuvan University Affiliated College, Kathmandu, Nepal.

*             Correspondence: pinkeybogati1@gmail.com

Keywords: gender mainstreaming, reduction, case study, panchkhal, Nepal

1. INTRODUCTION

Nepal is exposed to multiple recurring hazards. The country falls in the top 20th list of the most multi-hazard prone countries in the world [1]. The country is ranked 4th, 11th and 30th in term of climate change, earthquake, and flood risk, respectively. Other major disasters in Nepal are landslide, fire, drought, epidemic, storm, hailstorm, avalanches and GLOF. Nepal’s hazard profile indicates that Nepal is prone to an excess of natural and human induced disasters [2]. The country’s hazards include epidemics, floods, landslides, and mudslides, urban and wildfires, glacier lake outbursts, windstorms, cold and heat waves, road accidents, drowning incidents, landmines, and earthquakes. Nepal’s state on Vulnerability to disaster is deeply complex and highly variable throughout the country [3]. The number of reported incidence of disasters in Nepal is increasing, linked to factors such as weak governance, population growth, rapid urban expansion, relatively weak land-use planning, the spread of informal settlements, poorly constructed structures, steep land farming practices, encroachment of settlements into river plain and forest areas, and environmental degradation Nepal is a country with a high risk of the occurrence of hazards’ impacts and disasters, is well known and documented in annual reports published by both government and non-non-government agencies [4]. The risk of the occurrence of disasters is high, the resources to mitigate and minimize the risk are limited. However, it is argued that proper governance, efficient mitigation measures, prevention strategies and gender inclusiveness are few essential practices that can help to reduce disaster risks. Furthermore, it can be argued that disaster risk reduction is merely a question of resources, but the will of stakeholders and coordinated efforts of all the concerned organizations and agencies to prevent, mitigate and respond to the threats and impacts of hazards. It is important to understand how gender relations shape women’s, men’s and other people live associated and critical to disaster risk reduction (DRR) [5]. This is because women and men share different roles and responsibilities. Moreover, availability and access to resources influence how each individual and group will be affected by different hazards. In addition to it, how these individuals and group will cope with and recover from disasters are some key questions that might help in identifying role of gender in inclusive governance in DRR [6]. When these issues are brought together in efforts to mainstream gender into disaster risk reduction, governments and practitioners have found a gap in policy and practical guidance. And while individuals and organizations know what should be done, more often the question is how [7]. Moreover, this is not just because the responsibility is integrally difficult but perhaps there is lack of standards, guidance, and practical understanding of the issues [8]. To respond to this, UNISDR has stepped up its efforts in support of mainstreaming gender perspectives into disaster risk reduction since 2006. This publication is the result of extensive consultations and a response to the call for clear policy and practical guidance for mainstreaming gender perspectives into disaster risk reduction. According to Gender in practice by Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation [9], Gender is determined by the conception of tasks, functions and roles attributed to a human being in society and in public and private life. For instance, an individual might have physical characteristics of a male or a female but not feel like either of them. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization process.  earthquake of 7.8 magnitude hit Nepal, followed by a second on 12 May of 7.3 magnitude [10]. The epicenter was in Ghorkha district, 80 km west from the capital, Kathmandu. At least 8,891 were killed, a further 22,493 people were injured. An estimated 605,250 houses were destroyed with over 288,250 badly damaged by earth tremors, landslides, and floods. There is a range of data on the impact of the earthquake in Nepal from both government and non-government agencies. One of the most useful sources is from the Inter Cluster Gender Task Force formed five days after the earthquake [11]. The task force has played a critical role in ensuring data about the aftermath which is disaggregated by sex, age, and other factors. This estimates that the 14 districts most affected by the first earthquake were home to approximately 2,710,239 women and that an estimated 26.5 percent of the households affected were female-headed households. In Gorkha district, the epicenter of the earthquake, the ratio of households headed by women was as high as one-third, as many men from this region were serving in the Gurkha army or working abroad as migrant laborers [12]. Approximately 55 per cent of the casualties were identified as female, and an estimated 3.2 million women have been affected by protection concerns including 126,000 pregnant women, 21,000 of whom were in their final trimester. Women and girls are disproportionately disadvantaged in humanitarian crises due to gender inequality, which shapes and deepens vulnerability to hazards and acts as a constrain to responses [13]. This is also observed in their duties as workers, wives, and mothers which remains as a challenging issue worsening condition. More specifically, Lin Chew and Kavita Ramdas highlights several studies showing that sexual violence can increase dramatically after natural disasters. The ICGTF in Nepal estimated that, in approximately 40,000 women were thought to be at immediate risk of sexual and gender-based violence. Research have shown that women are affected more than men at the time of disaster. For instance, the number of the effected women were high in Gorkha Earthquake on the death rate of women were 55 percent and that of men were 45 percent. “Earthquake: 55pc of death is women, children” [14].  Prior to the earthquake and now, Nepal is characterized as having persistent poverty, slow economic growth, and high levels of gender inequality. The country is ranked 147th on the Human Development Index and despite economic growth, absolute inequalities continue to persist. Nepal is socially, culturally, and ethnically diverse, with a population of over 27.47 million, 125 caste/ethnic groups, 123 languages, and ten religions. Although caste-based legal restrictions have been abolished, many discriminatory attitudes and practices persist to the detriment of Dalits, indigenous ethnic groups, and women. Women within the Dalit population are the most marginalized, given that the Dalit population has relatively higher levels of poverty [15]. The research we discuss here contributes to knowledge on this literature, providing data from Nepal in the aftermath of the earthquake. We focus on how women’s activism can improve disaster responses to reduce VAWG after natural disasters [16]. Whilst women and girls are stereotypically positioned as victims and vulnerable in times of crisis, there has been less focus on women’s and girls’ agencies and accomplishments in the face of disasters, and the crucial role women play as first responders in natural disasters [17]. The central role of grassroots women’s leadership post-disaster needs to be understood more clearly by the humanitarian community, governments, and policymakers, and is discussed here in the context of the earthquakes in Nepal [18]. There has recently been a critical shift in the mainstreaming of gender perspectives into DRR: from a women-focused approach to a gender focused approach, based on the premise that the roles and relationships of women and men in DRR should be analyzed within the overall gendered socioeconomic and cultural context [19]. On top of this shift, the strategic focus of disaster management has changed from reactive disaster response to long-term proactive disaster risk and vulnerability reduction, where gender and DRR are considered necessary to achieving sustainable development. At the global level, available information shows that efforts to promote gender equality in DRR have focused on advocacy and awareness-raising, along with support for policy changes and gender mainstreaming in inter-governmental processes [20]. Disasters do not discriminate, but people do. Existing socio-economic conditions means that disasters can lead to different outcomes even for demographically similar communities – but inevitably the most vulnerable groups suffer more than others. Research reveals that disasters reinforce, perpetuate, and increase gender inequality, arguably making bad situations worse for women [21]. For instance, after the Gorkha earthquake, many victims living in temporary shelters such as, tents, Corrugated Galvanized Iron and tarpaulin did not have access to basic hygiene, sanitation, waste disposal system and privacy. It is argued that collective action is one of the essential tools to address a disaster. It is vital to understand that the disasters are indiscriminately in nature and might affect individuals and group despite of their sexual orientation. Furthermore, differences formed from societies and cultures constrain women from freely exercising physical movements, intellectual discussions and recommending possible course of actions. Meanwhile, the potential contributions that women can offer to the disaster risk reduction is imperative around the world. However, it is argued that the role of women is often overlooked specially as leaders building community resilience to disasters [22].

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study seeks to use a combination of research methods and data sources to ensure more rigorous, reliable, and valid analysis is done. The study looks for to use a combination of research methods and data sources to ensure more difficult, consistent, and effective analysis to be done. Qualitative data collection methods are put up with to build the basis of reliable content research. In addition to it, this chapter is an attempt to identify the use of different research tools to identify, collect, analyze, and produce essential information within the context of the topic. It seeks to explore community’s women group experiences during disaster and the engagement of women in the disaster risk reduction and management work, a qualitative approach was appropriate which is questionnaires and direct interviews and discussions. This analysis has enlightened the gaps and efficiency fading in current processes and provide understanding into how women empowerment and gender equality will support in DRR activities in this municipality. Descriptive research is defined as a “fact finding operation searching for adequate information, it is a type of study which is generally conducted to assess the opinions, behavior or characteristics of a given population and to describe the situation and events occurring in both past and present” [23]. This study design therefore perfectly complements with this study. Descriptive research design is adopted for this research to represent the systematic collection and presentation of data and furnish a clear picture evaluating on men and women participation to disaster risk reduction activities initiative of 2015 Nepal earthquake. Therefore, descriptive study design was utilized especially in collecting data and information from the study area. To achieve the objectives, a survey was conducted in Panchkhal five wards among the mothers group women and female community health volunteers along with the local government representatives. They were surveyed through qualitative means like key informant interviews, questionnaires, and focal group discussions. The findings were based on the different descriptions based by continuous discussion and different questions. Like this the qualitative data was analyzed descriptively. The study is conducted in Panchkhal Municipality that is located on Kavrepalanchwok district of Province 3 towards the southeast region of Kathmandu valley, its geographical coordinates are 27° 39′ 0″ North, 85° 37′ 0″. The Danphe and Jhiku Khola, a tributary of the Sun Koshi River is characterized by the development of geomorphic surfaces at different elevations (594-1612m), formed after the last glacial retreat in the area. Panchkhal has an area of 103 km² and Density: 386.6/km² according to the 2011 census. According to the municipality profile, it had a population of 42011 with 9381 houses combined of previous VDC that were merged with highest population 4721 in ward no.12 and least population 2117 in ward no. 10. Likewise, highest no. of households was 1110 in ward no. 6 and least households 473 in ward no. 7. Previous Anaikot, Hokse Bazar, Kharelthok, Koshidekha, Baluwa & Panchkhal VDC were merged to form the agriculturally rich Panchkhal. This municipality has tremendous developing prospects in terms of agriculture and tourism.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 01: Panchkhal Municipality Population by gender and number of houses within the wards.

 Table 02: List of the selected wards for study

This area is densely populated as well. The selection of sample population was abstracted through a purposive sampling method under non-probability sampling design, the mothers group women, female health volunteer, Mayor, Deputy Mayor, secretary, locally elected members, teachers of the Municipality have been selected for the study. 141 respondents have been taken as sample size from the total population of 13 wards who were the concerned group of persons that have an information regarding the gender equal participation in disaster management and EPR after 2015 earthquake. For focus group discussion the female representative officer (secretary) of municipality wards along with member of mothers group of the community has been brought together for open discussion to understand their level of understanding in the disaster risk reduction activities. Main focal persons like Deputy Mayor, Secretary, female representatives’ members of the municipality ad other local members of the wards, community focal person were interviewed to understand the challenges of mainstreaming gender in DRR.

Table 03 : Distribution of respondents by the sex

Table shows the total number of respondents of 141. As mentioned, the number of female respondents is 117 (82.98%) and the number of male respondents is 24 (17.02%). From the research study the respondents from teachers’ side were more men and even in the local authorities’ level the respondents were more men for the study. Because of this the respondents that play a vital role in sharing their knowledge and experiences were 24 men out of 141 respondents

Table 04: Distribution of respondents

As shown in table 04 the number of 16 Female Community health volunteers ‘groups were put in a focal group discussion in the health post for the study. Similarly, 15 teachers were also kept in focal group discussion for the discussion of the topic. Whereas the local authority’s people were interviewed as a key informant interview and their interviews were recorded in the phone as per their concern. Like this, 95 numbers of mother’s group women were also interviewed through a questionnaire survey for the study. This study was conducted at Panchkhal Municipality which lies in Kavrepalanchowk district of Bagmati province, Nepal. Kavrepalanchowk district is one of the severely affected districts among the 14 districts that was rocked by the 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Every aspect of life had been affected including the livelihoods of 8 million people who were residing in the 14 districts [24]. The earthquake damaged and destroyed houses, animal shelters, food stores, livestock, crops, as well as social infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, business houses, banks, microenterprises, and roads. It has affected public health, business operation, trade, threatened food security, disrupted production, employment, and other services. The Constitution of Nepal envisioned a federal system and newly structured political system, tiers of government and political boundary. Local units were either merged or separated based on the new system of governance. Similarly, Panchkhal municipality was merged with Village Development Committees to form its status. The municipality has a total population of 42,011 which includes 9381 houses combined of previous VDCs and then municipal wards. The VDCs that were merged include ward number 12 with highest population 4721 and ward number 10 with the least population of 2117. Likewise, the highest number of households is 1110 in ward no. 6 and least households 473 in ward no. 7.  All wards of the municipality are connected to transportation and communication. Some of the leading occupations of the municipality are farming and raising livestock, trade and businesses followed by public service, and foreign employment. This study aimed to identify the gap in the issues of gender equality, equity and women participation in disaster management and disaster risk reduction.  The number of women who were affected on earthquake was high. The death rate of women was 55 percent compared to that of men which was 45 percent “Earthquake: 55pc of death is women, children”. It is argued that women and girls are particularly exposed to risks and are likely to suffer high rates of mortality, morbidity, and economic damage in case of a disaster. The study has collected information from the field to understand and identify the capacity of women in preparedness knowledge about the disaster risk reduction and management. Although legal provisions have been made to ensure women representation in all sectors, it is important to understand whether the provision are being implemented in the ground level. Thus, the study has also emphasized on the part of implementation of government acts, policies, rules, guidelines, and provisions to ensure female participation and inclusiveness. A survey was conducted in five wards among the existing 13 wards of Panchkhal municipality. A total of 141 respondents were noted among which 27 were males and 114 were females, with the age range of 18-75 years old. The ethnic background of the sample population included Tamang, Newar, Brahamin, Chhetri, Pariyar, Pahari and other castes. Almost all the respondents were of Hindu religion apart from few Christians. Regarding the literacy rate of the respondents, about 22.7% could read and write but had no formal education, 38.3% of the respondents had formal education and 39% respondents were poorly literate.

Table 05 : The most affected gender by earthquake

This table presents the response from all the respondents. Respondents from mothers group women represents that out of 95 respondents 50 considered women are mostly affected by earthquake. Whereas 25 considered both are affected equally by earthquake and only 20 considered men are affected the most. Whereas, from Female Health Volunteers perspective out of 16 respondents 8 considered women as the most affected one and 6 considered as both are affected equally and 2 considered as men the most affected by earthquake. Among 15 teacher respondents’ only 3 considered as men are affected the most, 5 considered women as the most affected one whereas 7 considered as both are equally affected by the earthquake. Similarly, among 15 government authorities and local members, 7 considered women as the most vulnerable and 6 considered as both are equally affected whereas 2 considered as men the most.

Table 06 : The potential causes of gender-based vulnerability

Here, traditional barriers represent the social and cultural restriction that exist in the society especially for women who has been prioritized less than the men. Historically, Nepal has mostly been a patriarchal society where women are generally inferior to men. Men were the leader of the family and superior to women. Also, social norms, cultural traditional values were biased in favor of men. This strong bias in favor of sons in society meant that daughters were discriminated against from birth and did not have equal opportunities to achieve all aspects of development. Given that fact that Nepalese society is heavily derived from the Hindu system of beliefs underlining patrilineal origin and a patrifocal dwelling system due to which in several cases people limit themselves from implementing certain aspects of these laws and don’t accept equal role, status and right for women. Table shows the major findings based on the four parameters as to why women are more vulnerable to men in disasters. The table presents the response from the identified respondents. The Female Community Health Volunteers believe that women are more vulnerable because of the existing inequalities between men and women. For example, they argue that women are not discussed or asked for any opinions in terms of investment in preparedness and response. Similarly, 6 respondents from FCHV believe that the lack of education and awareness in the topic is a major reason for women being more vulnerable to men. Whereas 4 respondents from FCHV considers that due to the traditional and social barriers women are considered more vulnerable than men at the time of disaster. For example, as most of the people perception towards community women were that they are supposed to do household work only and serve a family member. This gives them no time and opportunity to think about other outdoor matters letting them be unaware and gets affected more when disaster take place. Similarly, 2 FCHV considered dress code are the major reason for being women more vulnerable than men at the time of disaster. Particularly “sari or dhoti”, a dress worn by majority of rural women, are dress that limits free physical movement in terms of disasters. From the mothers group women’s perspective 28 respondents considered the existing inequalities are the major reason for being women more vulnerable than men during earthquake and 30 considered as the lack of education and awareness causes the women more vulnerable than men during disaster. Whereas the 32 respondents from mothers group believes that traditional barriers are the main reason for being women more vulnerable than men and 5 of the respondents considered as the dress code is also the reason for the women get more vulnerable than men. According to the local authorities 4 of the respondents are consider that the existing inequalities are the reason for women being more vulnerable to men at the time of disaster. Whereas 5 of the respondents believe that it is due to the lack of proper education and awareness. At the same time, 4 respondents said that it’s a traditional barrier because of which women are more vulnerable than men and 2 of the respondents believe that the dress code is also a main reason for being women more vulnerable than men at the time of disaster. According to the teacher’s perspective 4 respondents considered as the existing inequalities in the society among men and women are the main reason for being women more vulnerable than men at the time of disaster. Similarly, 5 respondents believe that because of lack of education and awareness among the women are the reason for making women more vulnerable than men. Whereas 4 respondents said that it’s also due to the traditional barriers that makes women more vulnerable than men and 2 of the respondents said that the dress code for women are the cause for being women more vulnerable than men at the time of disaster. It has been found that majority of women are occupied by their household activities whereas some of the young lady women who are educated are doing jobs in school as a teacher [23]. Other than that, as per the research study some women are local representatives from the governmental post. While conducting a discussion for the research study it has been identified that women have faced many problems during and after the post-earthquake 2015. Usually, they have a lot of work and when disasters take place, they suffer a lot due to the damage of property and loss of their relative’s life during disaster. [24] Their lifestyle continues with the challenges in their day-to-day life. Some of the mothers of mothers group shares that due to the temporary common shelters their daughter felt awkward and uncomfortable to maintain their reproductive hygiene [25]. They mention that due to the destruction of the water pipes there was a shortage of water in the village due to which sanitation was a big challenge to them at that time. They also state that the pregnant women and lactating women were at more risk during disaster and after disaster facing different problems like proper nutrition food to lactating mother, sanitation and health issues to pregnant women, they also stated that there were few women whose baby died inside the womb due to disrupted life pattern and stress during disaster [26]. From the overall discussion with the respondents the more problems were identified that the women have experienced during disaster and after disaster. It shows how women are affected one after another [27].  As per the discussion the factors like location, infrastructure, skilled human resources, poverty, socio economic condition etc. enhances the women’s vulnerability during and after disaster. It has been reported that with respect to the relief items that were distributed to the earthquake victims, they were not gender balanced. Relief material specifically that are of essential to women health and hygiene such as, sanitary pad, hygiene tool kits, dignity kit, lactating products and others were not included in the relief packages that were distributed [28]. It has been stated that after the post-earthquake women were being challenged on multiple fronts during and post disaster. For instance, reproductive health, menstruation cycle, damaged houses and poor sanitation are areas where women found it difficult to cope with [29]. The temporary houses made from tarpaulin were not even safe for women. They said that the women faced various mental and physical problems during and after the disaster. According to the research survey and from the focal group discussion it has been found that regarding the disaster preparedness knowledge and information, sensitization program about the EPR, some women were given short briefs about the disaster information through the female health volunteers whereas most of them said that they have not received any sensitization training concerning the preparedness knowledge of disaster [30]. According to the discussion with Female health Volunteers of the wards they said that they received only one or two training regarding disaster preparedness and EPR (Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan) from the municipality and other NGOs. They demand for such awareness training to get informed, aware and for building up their resiliency from the disaster. From the key informant interview with Deputy Mayor of Panchkhal Municipality, it has been stated that the programs relating to the disaster-based preparedness to the community women are not much managed from the municipal level whereas they have created a platform for women in capacity development for enhancing their socio-economic condition [31]. She acknowledged that it is important to increase the number of trainings regarding disaster preparedness for emergency situations to sensitize the women groups and that they need to reach out in all community levels. She mentioned that women should be involved in the emergency planning and disaster management process through ensuring their active participation [32].  This will help in the reduction of women vulnerability and help in the long term to address disaster risks [33].

4. CONCLUSION

Disaster Management is a global challenge, but disaster do not affect men and women equally. In most of the cases the disaster impacted more female than male, and in Nepal the disparity between women victim and men victim is even greater. The purpose of this thesis is to increase the understanding of gender concerns and the importance of it to be incorporated in disaster risk reduction and disaster management cycle. Several studies done in the field suggest that women are more vulnerable to disaster risk and have specific needs during a crisis. However, in Nepal, social norms and traditionally pre identified work division restrict women’s freedom to express their needs and their point of view to the circumstances around them. These norms are deep-rooted in Nepal and other South Asian countries, and they increase the vulnerability of women to disaster risks. In rural communities, the status of women is not properly recognized. In some communities, they experience discriminatory treatment as compared to their male counterparts. They are deprived of certain rights and opportunities and are required to sincerely contribute towards the household responsibilities. Data for this study were obtained from qualitative study like by conducting a focal group discussion with community group of women, as well as key informant interviews with local focal government representatives. The study uses a case study approach for this study where the issues explored through one or more than one cases within a bounded system. The case study approach is a suitable form of qualitative approach to my topic as I studied the cases of gender stressing more in the engagement of women of different group and races in the disaster risk reduction activities and their experiences during and after disaster. The main areas that have been considered in this research include, socio-economic status of rural women, the level of understanding and awareness in preparedness to Disaster Risk Reduction and Management. This includes factors imposing negative affects upon women during disasters, and measures to enhance the status of rural women. This primary study was conducted among 95 mother’s group women, 15 local representatives, 15 teachers and 16 female community health volunteers. The aim of the research was to determine the conditions of women at Panchal community at the time of disaster earthquake   and afterwards awareness status of women living in that community. The thesis has tried to show the women obstacles that were faced during the disaster and after the disaster and how the Municipality / local government has tried to help them to uplift from this disaster’s risk. The researcher has tried to identify the gap behind the women’s vulnerability. The main areas that have been taken into consideration in this research thesis include, socio-economic status of rural women, the level of understanding and participation of them in DRR activities, factors imposing negative effects upon status of women, and measures to enhance the status of rural women. Moreover, Research shows that Changes have come about in the viewpoints and perspectives of rural individuals after the constitution of Nepal came into effect from 2015. But the changes are still not sufficient in a way women’s awareness, proper education, health facility and decision-making process.

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