Publication History
Submitted: November 04, 2023
Accepted: November 20, 2023
Published: December 11, 2023
Identification
D-0167
Citation
Md. Magfur Ahmad (2023). Literary stylistics analysis of ‘Farewell’, ‘I See Kashmir from New Delhi at Midnight’, ‘A Pastoral’, and ‘The Country Without a Post Office’. Dinkum Journal of Social Innovations, 2(12):712-720.
Copyright
© 2023 DJSI. All rights reserved.
712-720
Literary stylistics analysis of ‘Farewell’, ‘I See Kashmir from New Delhi at Midnight’, ‘A Pastoral’, and ‘The Country Without a Post Office’Original Article
Md. Magfur Ahmad 1*
- Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka; magfurahmad@du.ac.bd
* Correspondence: magfurahmad@du.ac.bd
Abstract: Furthermore, the research investigates how the chaos has been appropriately depicted in the amalgamation of various forms of poetry, including villanelle, canzone, and sestina. The research endeavours to discover the enunciation of meaning in the coalescence of form and content. In order to provide a theoretical framework for this combination of form and content, literary stylistics serve as the foundation. Literary stylistics is primarily concerned with, on the one hand, the meaning that is on the surface level, and on the other hand, it is concerned with the meaning that lies beneath the surface of the literary text. In accordance with the model proposed by Carter (1979), the poems that were chosen are analysed on four primary levels: i) grammatical, ii) lexico-semantic, iii) form, and iv) context. According to the findings of this study, the poetic forms, which have been inextricably interwoven with the content, depict traumatised characters reeling while attempting to cope with the ongoing catastrophes. The message of ominous occurrences that have resulted in the transformation of a paradise into a living picture of hell has been aptly embodied by this amalgamation of different forms, which has served the purpose of providing an appropriate representation of the message.
Keywords: literary stylistics, grammatics, lexico-semantic, context
- INTRODUCTION
The research investigates the desolation and anarchy that existed in Kashmir during the 1990s, as depicted in the poetic collection titled “The Country Without a Post Office” by Agha Shahid Ali, which was published in 1997. Ali is the author of this collection of poems, which he wrote against the backdrop of political unrest in Kashmir during the 1990s. This research is particularly focused on the convergence of two fundamental components of poetry, namely form and content, which brings about the enunciation of anarchy and chaos that were prevalent in that burning region during the final decade of the 20th century. Throughout his life, Ali has been a keen observer and a witness to the sociopolitical and economic conditions that have caused the people who live in Occupied Kashmir to feel uneasy. The author makes careful use of poetic forms such as villanelle, canzone, sestina, and Ghazal in order to convey the sense of uprootedness and the emotional pain that they are experiencing. Not only do these various forms constitute the theme, but they also constitute the subject matter; his political statement, as Sabitha points out, particularly in the context of political unrest, emphasises that the themes are not only made clear through the content, but also through the poetic forms that he chooses to employ in his writing (2000, page 182). Form provides a more vivid enunciation than the words do in these individual poems that have been chosen. When attempting to comprehend the introspective significance of Ali’s poetry, it is essential to provide a comprehensive explanation of the form. Due to the fact that this form is essential, literary stylistics is an appropriate theoretical paradigm that can be utilised to uncover the meaning that is concealed within the form. According to Ogunsiji (2013), the purpose of literary stylistics is to engage figurative language that is emphasised in poetry and to deal with evocative language features in the text for the purpose of interpretation (p. 18). The purpose of this study is to provide answers to the following questions: a) To what extent does the unity of poetic form and its content contribute to the articulation of the inexplicable feelings that are brought about by the collection’s mass killing and kidnapping efforts? And b) How do the indigenous metaphors that are derived and taken from Kashmiri culture and literature in The Country Without a Post Office fit into a language that has been adopted?
- LITERATURE REVIEW
Ali’s literary works, particularly The Country Without a Post Office, have provided a very apt voice for the profound changes that occurred in the political and social spheres during the final decade of the twentieth century. These changes have been very accurately voiced in Ali’s works. It was necessary to have a literary voice in order to be heard all over the world, and Ali was the only voice that demanded the rights of Kashmiri people in a vociferous manner. Violent resistance movements had not produced any results. A consistent engagement with issues pertaining to political justice, fundamental rights, and power can be seen throughout Ali’s collection of poems. This is page 180. Both the proxy Mujahedeen and the Indian Army were responsible for a never-ending string of tragedies, which caused him a great deal of distress. It is clear from Benvenuto’s words that the poet’s mental anguish was caused by the political unrest in Kashmir, which caused the poet to feel a deep love and affection for Kashmir (2002, page 266). Zaidi (2007) believes that the poetry of Ali demonstrates a “persistent engagement with the perennial theme of human suffering”; in addition, it also demonstrates “an acute awareness of the contemporary political issues and the ground realities on part of the poet” (p.156). Ali’s writing, in addition to addressing the loss of human lives and sufferings in the midst of political skirmishes in Kashmir, also sees both of these situations as occurring simultaneously. Ali is able to convey a sense of unhomeliness and homelessness through his poetry. In postcolonial writing, the concepts that were discussed earlier are concepts that appear repeatedly. As he lives his life in the diaspora, he is aware of the loss that the people of Kashmir go through and he longs to go back to the past. Ali has always struggled to retrieve the lost history of his ancestors; his goal was not only to “engage with pain” Pakistan but also to deal with “questions of memory, history, and representation” (Sabitha, 2000, p. 181). Nostalgia has always been an unattended guest for Ali. He has always struggled to retrieve the history that his ancestors have lost. Similarly, Ali is at the forefront of the new wave of immigrants who are serving as peace ambassadors to the countries of the first world. However, “his writing is more characterised by nostalgia for his various homes than by cultural conflict” (King, 1994, page 2). In spite of the fact that he is living his life in exile, Ali has a strong desire to reclaim the past he had in India and the days he wasted away in the United States. Despite the fact that he is currently residing in the United States, he is not unaware of the suffering that his native land is experiencing; feelings of loss and nostalgia are recurrent themes in his poetry. He has always been troubled by what other people have lost, “whether it be the northern Indian culture of his mother or the American Indian past of Arizona, where he lived for a short time” (King, 1994, page 3). He reminisces about the days that have passed in both Kashmir and the United States. Throughout the entirety of Ali’s poetry, descriptive metaphors from the region have made their way into the English language. A multitude of meanings can be derived from these newly developed poetic devices. Zaidi (2007) believes that Ali has registered his faith in the struggle of Kashmir by connecting the blood of Kashmiri with the blood of Imam Hussain. At the same time, he has expressed his anger against the inexplicable atrocities that have been brought about by the machinery of the state (p. 164). This helps to highlight the significance of these metaphors.
- MATERIAL AND METHODS
Literary stylistics underpins this study. Linguistic stylistics analyses literary text’s linguistic elements, unlike literary stylistics. In text explanation, literary stylistics emphasises textual clue and intuition. Language creates meaning in literary stylistics, according to Norgaard, Montoro, & Busse (2010) (p. 1). Linguistic and literary stylistics must be distinguished for clarity. The former focuses solely on metalanguage of a specific text, focusing on literary style and linguistic devices, while the latter highlights the author’s language and writing strategies and the style’s hidden and implicit meaning. Literary stylistics uses intuitive analysis of literary texts to bridge the growing gap between literary criticism and stylistics and bring science and intuition closer. The roots of literary stylistics are in linguistic stylistics. Therefore, linguistic stylistics should be rationalised instead of literary stylistics to understand the theoretical paradigm for this research. Widdoson (1975) states that stylistics is the “study of a literary discourse from a linguistic orientation” (p. 37). Digging deeper into literature requires language study. Thus, literary discourse explication and linguistically oriented text study require the confluence of content and poetic form. Both elements contribute equally to the text’s construction. Form is the author’s writing style; the connotative meanings the author infuses in the words are always distinctive. Authors may use the same words and symbols but have different meanings. Figurative language, colloquialisms, parallelism, rhythm and rhyme, grammatical deviation, metre, code switching, and code mixing create this meaning explosion. Form and meaning are equally important in poetry. Thus, literary stylistics illuminates form and content. Form must be studied and explained to understand poetry’s essence and literariness. Niazi and Gautam (2010) emphasise linguistic analysis in poetry over prose. In poetry, “aesthetic effect” and “creative manipulation of the linguistic code” (p. 24) are interdependent. The paradigm of stylistics can interpret poetry well. Niazi and Gautam propose a three-step model for literary text interpretation: first, uncover the evasive and hidden meaning, then describe it, and finally view and explain it in all dimensions. Different theorists have developed models to accurately and appropriately analyse literary texts, but this study focuses on an eclectic approach that can encompass the dimensions of poetry. The researchers chose an eclectic approach to study Ali’s poetry because of the study’s nature. Thus, Ali’s poetry, especially the selected poems, requires a comprehensive investigation to reveal the hidden meaning. This study uses Ronald Carter’s ‘poles’ model and Michael Halliday’s ‘functional model of language’ to achieve this. Carter (1979) proposes “Middle Ground” (29), reconciling literature and linguistics. This middle ground is crucial for establishing text evaluation and explanation principles. Carter believes that if this middle ground is a synthesis point where linguistic and literary aspects converge, then this “accommodation must proceed on equally integrated basis” (p. 14). Carter proposes four ‘poles’ for poetry analysis: Grammar, Lexico-Semantic, Form, and Context Poles (p. 47). Halliday (1978) believes languages are social semiotics, meaning they have contributed to larger ideologies and beliefs. Thus, it appears to be a social phenomenon that always affects and is influenced by society. Halliday identifies three types of language signification: experiential, interpersonal, and textual. According to Norgaard (2010), experiential meaning, also called ideational meaning, seeks to understand how something is constructed and represented. Hallidian Model emphasises language construction. Halliday believes language constructs meaning as well as representing objects and meanings (1999, p. 140).
- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Due to the article’s limitations, all poems cannot be explained. Therefore, this article only covers the poems ‘Farewell’, ‘I See Kashmir from New Delhi at Midnight’, ‘A Pastoral’, and ‘The Country Without a Post Office’. The opening poem, ‘Farewell’, shows trauma and chaos in its style, structure, and diction. Grammatical category is explained to begin this poem’s analysis. This poem switches tenses. Space and time shuffles indicate the poem’s continuous action. “They make a desolation and call it peace” (L. 2) is a constant cycle like a wheel. The poem’s time travel keeps us indecisive and takes us from past to present to future. The time shift shows the events’ universality and timelessness. Diction analysis shows that many words are mono- or duo-syllabic. Poetry with mono- or duo-syllabic words is called limpidity or classical simplicity. The poem uses many nominal words, followed by verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Nominal words and a large word count make the poem a moving casket with clear imagery. Form highlights poem elements. This poem does not follow a traditional poetry form. Thus, studying the prosody suggests that the poem’s structure, especially its length, resembles sestina. The poem laments innocent lives lost and Pandits’ indefinite separation from Kashmir. So the poem has elegy overtones as it laments the irreparable loss. Given its length and elegiac elements, ‘Farwell’ is a sestina-elegy hybrid. This chaotic version of the poem ‘Farewell’ represents Kashmiri society’s social and political chaos, where the armed forces and security agencies have made life amorphous. This collection’s first poem welcomes readers but bids farewell to the armless Kashmiri Pundits who are fleeing in fear of being expelled. Minority Hindu Pundits felt insecure during the 1990s uprising. As minorities, pundits worried that the state’s brutality towards Muslims would incite radicalised Muslims to attack Hindus. Due to this threat, many Pundits had to leave Kashmir and settle in Jammu, where Muslims were a minority and Pundits were the majority. The speaker mourns his departing neighbours while counting security agency and military carnages. After the Pandits leave, the interlocutor laments, “You needed me, you needed to perfect me. In your absence you polished me into the Enemy” (L. 20, 21). The absence of Pandits in this region caused Muslim-Hindu hostility and disrupted peaceful coexistence. In the absence of neighbours, miscommunications fueled ‘the Enmity’. The long poem ‘I See Kashmir from New Delhi at Midnight’ has four sections: sections I and II have three stanzas each, while the penultimate and last sections have two. A modal verb ‘must’ begins the quintet, setting the imperative mood. A dependent clause of modal verb ‘can’ preceded by present simple tense ends this opening quintet. All quintets in section II and the next two in the first section are present simple. The second section ends dramatically but introduces multiple interlocutors, including the first speaker and Rizwan, who question and answer. The third section of the poem begins with present simple and present perfect, recording Rizwan’s response to the speaker’s question, but the rest of the dialogue is in the same tense. Section three’s final quintet contains a significant change in pronouns, with singular interlocutors now plural: “We see men removing temples. We ask, ‘Who will protect us if you leave?’” (L. 41,42). Rizwan has given way to temples, where subjective and individual sufferings have become objective and collective. The unknown speaker pleads with departing neighbours for protection. The poem’s conclusion uses present simple and perfect tense, raising questions about Rizwan’s disappearance. The speaker promises not to tell his father that Rizwan was shot down, understanding his fear. These atrocities befell them in the past yet they have been shown in present. Moreover, the exchange of dialogues and frequent use of present tense dramatize the story of Rizwan giving the sense that it takes place in front of our naked eyes. Moreover, the recurrence of present simple universalizes the atrocities committed against the locals, and renders the happenings a sense of permanency. In this poem, nouns dominate followed by action verbs, modifiers, pronouns and adverbs respectively. Approximately eighty nominal words have been used and many of the words in this category of nouns are concrete with the exception of few abstract nouns. Another noticeable feature in the lexicon of this poem is the repetition of words: ‘shadow’, ‘ice’ and ‘snow’ that constitute the recurrent motifs. In this poem the words ‘ice’, ‘shadow, ‘snow’ are used thrice, four times and again four times respectively. The image of ‘snow’ possesses bleak and negative connotations and the meaning of this recurrent image does not remain same rather changes each time. In 29th line the word ‘snow’ indicates coldness of fatality, in 36th line ‘snow’ stands for the catastrophe and calamity that is to befall masses, while in 59th line the capitalized ‘Snow’ suggests a kind of region going through constant demographic changes. Similarly, the word ‘ice’ does resist significance as it symbolizes courage and resilience in the very beginning and also towards the end of the poem, while in line number 23 it indicates negativity as it entails a destructive strong flowing wind (bullets) that devoid chinar leaves (bodies) of life. The word ‘shadow’ in the opening of the poem seems to be a wandering spirit but in the second stanza of the second section it becomes apparent that this spirit is Rizwan. This frequent use of word ‘shadow’ epitomizes the condition of each individual and whole society of Kashmir where the fate of people passes through bitter experience. In the nominal group the words ‘phiren’ and ‘chinar’ are indigenous; this utilization of indigenous words, known as ‘nonce formation’ in Leach’s terms (1969), symbolizes Ali’s attempt to revitalize the Kashmiri culture. Most of the lines of this poem are pentameter and tetrameter. The lesser use of syllables and comparatively shorter length of lines in poetry show poet’s aphoristic style; this helps convey multiple ideas, themes, images and symbols in a concise language. This is peculiarity of the poet that he universalizes the issue of Kashmiri and this has been done in free verse. In the last decade of twentieth century the fearful and catastrophic events had traumatized the people of Kashmir; clashes were rampant; houses were raided and consequently kidnappings were usual. The alleged prisoners were never tried in the courts and tortured to death; the grieving parents had no clue of the dead bodies. Rizwan had long been cold; speaker strives to deduce signification from the whispers of the wallowing spirit. At the moment, the spirit has become a whole representing the each sufferer of Kashmir. Put in another way, Rizwan is no more ‘himself’ rather he is transformed into a ‘other’ or ‘whole’. The interlocutor is ushered through gushing blood where he watches in horror “hundreds of pairs of shoes the mourners had / left behind, as they ran from the funeral, victims of firing” (L. 33-35). ‘A Pastoral’ is another poem which chronicles the bleak incidents of brutality and barbarity. The poem, set in future, articulates a multiplicity of perspectives as certainty, longing, hope, and prospects. This future tense is used in the first two stanzas but there is a sudden shift in the point of view accompanied with a slight change in the indicative mood in the second last line as it imaginatively weighs the human’s capacity to endure the worst times. The third stanza marks a sudden change in narration as the action keeps switching between present and past. It is worthwhile to observe regarding the structure of the poem that the poet introduces three different perspectives in the first three stanzas: first being the speaker himself; second point of view comes from the bird and third, the voice of the gardener voice. When situated in Kashmir’s context, the last two points of view have a greater symbolic signification. The speaker’s imaginative voyage into past and then into future is not merely a visualization and imaginative re-creation of past events and possibilities in future; rather, the speaker attempts to juxtapose the bleak and real events of gone days with a promising future devoid of the shackles of the past. Concrete words dominate this poem but abstraction of these concrete words has portrayed the complex and grim picture of devastated Kashmir metaphorically. A minute and comprehensive analysis reveals the aspect of concreteness into abstraction. The concrete words in the first stanza: “by the gates of Villa of peace” (L. 2) metaphorically signify an inevitable calm and tranquil time in future simple. Likewise the word ‘keys’ (L. 4) is a concrete noun yet it signifies the promised ownership on Kashmir, shifting from Indian usurpers to the real owners. Moreover, the words: ‘the bird’, ‘open thorns’, ‘gardener’, ‘ivy’, ‘horned lark’, ‘falcon’, ‘blood’, ‘talons’, ‘mirror’, ‘door’ etc. are concrete nouns but all have abstract signification; these words recapture abominations of past and hint at the splendor that future may beget. Most of the words in the poem are replete with imagery, making the picture moving. Besides this, the poem contains two distinctive features that show the traumatic effects of socio-political unrest. The first of these distinctive features is dramatic monologue-like style of the poem; and secondly, without using any classical pattern of meter the use of free verse meter depicts the widespread chaos. Dramatic monologues, particularly in philosophical poetry, aims at exploring the psychological problems of the interlocutor and portraying the contemplation process while thinking of an idea or some specific happening. The interlocutor juxtaposes twofold thinking process of people; the individual concern and the collective thinking. The speaker unequivocally constitutes a collective consciousness while, at the same time, the bird and gardener’s voice represent deep and profound psychology and thinking of individuals from the oppressed society. In the mist of this collective consciousness either the bird or the gardener’s voice interrupts thinking usually uncommon in dramatic monologues. Another worth noting feature is that the poem deviates all the structural rules usually a classical dramatic monologue governs yet its movement, during the development of story commencing from the interlocutor to the gardener’s voice and then to the speaking bird makes it a kind of pseudo-dramatic monologue. Robert Browning’s dramatic monologues aim at exploring a person’s sole mind while understating the representation of the whole. But in ‘Pastoral’ the voices of bird and gardener are foregrounded in order to embody the psychological processes and mental activities of the whole society. Since the complete decolonization of Subcontinent, the status of Indian Occupied Kashmir has been undecided and disputed. Kashmir is a Muslim-majority state but its fate was enforced against the consent of its inhabitants and was acceded to India by Maharaja Hari Singh in 1947. Since then, Kashmir has been in turmoil and an apple of discord between India and Pakistan. In the aftermath of partition all the stakeholders got their part of slice but Kashmir’s fate was left to swing between many poles: India, Pakistan and United Nations Organization (UNO). Under the pressure of world community and UNO the then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru promised to conduct plebiscite in the region in order to decide the fate of Kashmiri but it was never carried out. The then Chief Minister of Kashmir, Sheikh Abdullah, had emphasized to hold the promised referendum but, unfortunately, he was dismissed from the position and was exiled for propagating the issue to the international leadership. Consequently, the Indian Government allegedly charged him with conspiracy against the state and put him to judicial trial. This was the first of many instances when the Kashmiri people felt betrayed and their trust was shattered. Even today the Kashmiri natives await a referendum on the fate of the disputed region. This optimism and hope of the Kashmiris to get rid of the Indian oppression has aptly been contextualized in ‘A Pastoral’. The poem ‘Country Without a Post Office’ is the most accomplished poem of the collection. It has an intricate grammatical structure which signifies the complexity of the prevailing situation. The use of present, past and future with different moods as indicative, interrogative and subjunctive implies the ceaselessness of horrific events. Besides this, the technique of ‘a narrator within narrator’ explores the psychological effects and the severity of nostalgia caused by the disconnectedness during political turmoil. The analysis on lexical and semantic levels unearths significant and deeper meaning. This is one of the lengthiest and imaginatively richest poems hence providing us good deal of opportunity to investigate the wide lexical elements. The constant repetition of the nouns: ‘rain’, ‘dark’, ‘stamps’ ‘fire’ etc. connote bleak and murky happenings ahead. The word ‘dark’ with different collocations has been used seven times: thrice as adjective and four times as a noun. Similarly, most of these aforementioned words have appeared twice or thrice. The repetition and concretization of symbolic words constructs a world with moving images of oppression and brutality coupled with a sense of insecurity and instability. Moreover, the noun ‘ash’ is recurring image throughout the collection but particularly in this very poem. ‘Ash’ being a paradoxical word on the one hand connotes annihilation and destruction, while on the other, it highlights resilience and rebirth. Rooted in this context of oppression of Kashmir both significations are vital: devastation has become the norm and this fate has to befall them but, despite this, the severity of uprising never seems to subside which implies an unrelenting rebirth and resilience. There are some recurrent verbs: ‘bury’, ‘died’, ‘socked’, ‘burn’ etc. which demonstrate the occurrence of catastrophic events and their reappearance in the next lines implies the ceaseless replay of traumatic events. This poem is an elegiac canzone and this is one of the well-formed and well structured poems in the collection. Twelve stanzas with eight lines in each constitute this masterpiece poem. As far as its prosody is concerned, the pattern of rhyming scheme keeps the flow with a few exceptions, hence it is: a, b, c, d, d, c, b, a. First line of the stanza rhymes with the last line while the second line rhymes with second last line; the third line of the stanza rhymes with third last line; fourth line rhymes with the fifth line. There is a slight deviation in the fourth stanza as the opening line of the stanza ends with ‘dark’ whereas in the last line ‘heart’ demarcates the stanza. Hence the words ‘Dark’ and ‘heart’ make a half rhyming with the assonance of ‘a’ sound and ‘r’ sound. The reversal of the same words is observed in stanza eight in which ‘heart’ appears in the opening line whereas ‘dark’ comes in the last line. An illustrious proverb reads ‘History repeats itself’ yet Kashmir’s history not only does repeat itself but it also replays, recurs and happens incessantly. The Kashmir issue has been a conundrum and dilemma that has ripped away the symphony the synchronized culture of Kashmir. The last decade of twentieth century saw a spike in tension between oppressors and oppressed. Curfews and shutterdown strikes were rampant in the region. The writ of the Indian Government was in question; rules were violated and challenged which resulted in the shutting down of many public institutions. The Indian Government eschewed its responsibility of restoring the closed institutions. Post offices were among the other institutions which remained closed in order to disconnect the rebellious actors from each other. The closure of such institutions did not affect the anti-state activities but such closures affected the common people and hampered them from remaining in contact with their nearer and dearer ones. The law-enforcement agencies blamed Mujahedeen for debilitating situation and the Indian Government holds non-Kashmiris for infiltrating the LoC (Line of Control) in order to disrupt the peace and stability of Kashmir. In reality the Kashmiri struggle for freedom was an indigenous movement where in the absence of any print and electronic media to raise their voice, the Kashmiris had no other option but to use violence so that they may be heard. As Gangahar (2013) recounts the struggle of the Kashmiri people as, “an indigenous movement, a Kashmiri movement and as the phrase goes….of the people, by the people and for the people, the people of Kashmir. And against India, the state” (p. 36). Agha Shahid Ali’s poetry, as discussed in this paper, represents the chaos, death, struggle and the impact that this catastrophic situation has brought to Kashmir
- CONCLUSION
Ali dreamt a tranquil, serene and peaceful Kashmir with post offices serving people in having a strong and uninterrupted source of communication but this dream could not be materialized in his life. He left this world with a desperate wish to alleviate all kind of injustice, bias and exploitation but the world’s biggest democracy has pawed at the sources of land with its lustful claws. In this global world human beings have no importance. It is territory and space which have got value. India wants the land of Kashmir; she has nothing to do with the dwellers. Kashmir has got prominence owing to its rich forests, flowing rivers, geo-political importance and precious minerals. India does not want it go away into the hands of indigenous people who are the real owner of these resources. Ali’s poetry exposes this materialistic approach of a neo-imperialist and brutal state; it has brought about positive changes in the image of locals across the pacific where the indigenous people were portrayed as terrorists. It would not be hyperbolic that Ali has served well in transforming the nature of war from weapons to pen.
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Publication History
Submitted: November 04, 2023
Accepted: November 20, 2023
Published: December 11, 2023
Identification
D-0167
Citation
Md. Magfur Ahmad (2023). Literary stylistics analysis of ‘Farewell’, ‘I See Kashmir from New Delhi at Midnight’, ‘A Pastoral’, and ‘The Country Without a Post Office’. Dinkum Journal of Social Innovations, 2(12):712-720.
Copyright
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